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U.S. Courts-Martial in Occupation Japan: Rape, Race, and Censorship

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 May 2025

Terese Svoboda
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“We too are an army of rapists,” anonymous soldier, letter to the editor, Time Magazine, November 12, 1945.

What explains the lack of records regarding the number of rapes in occupation Japan by American servicemen? I briefly review the situation of rape during World War II in the European theater for which there is reasonable documentation to better understand why the names and numbers are concealed or lost. I then examine the situation postwar, focusing particularly on conditions in Japan at the beginning of the American occupation. I conclude by analyzing what little documentation I discovered about an execution for rape while writing Black Glasses Like Clark Kent, my memoir about my uncle who committed suicide after leaving me tapes about his experiences as an MP in Tokyo's 8th Army stockade.

Type
Research Article
Information
Asia-Pacific Journal , Volume 7 , Issue 21 , May 2009 , e1
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Copyright © The Authors 2009

References

Notes

1Barrouquere, Brett. “Judge Upholds Iraq rape charges” Cleveland Plain Dealer. August 26, 2008 Retrieved 2008-11-11. “Green had been honorably discharged from the military with psychiatric problems when allegations surfaced of U.S. military involvement in the slayings. He was arrested as a civilian.”

2Turner, Lisa L. “The Articles of War and the UCMJ – widespread court martial cases in World War II led to the enactment of the Uniform Code of Military Justice.” Aerospace Power Journal, Fall, September 6, 2000.

3Lilly, Robert. Taken by Force: Rape and American GIs in Europe during WWII. Hampshire: Palgrave, 2007. p. 34. . The lack of documentation from any of the lesser courts was noted by Frederick L. Borch of the JAG Legal Center and School Library in Charlottesville, VA by telephone on April 3, 2009.

4United States. House of Representatives Committee on Military Affairs. Investigations of the National War Effort, Report of the Committee of Military Affairs, House of Representatives, 79th Congress, Second Session, Pursuant to H. Res. 20: A Resolution Authorizing the Committee on Military Affairs to Study the Progress of the National War Effort, June 1946, GPO, 1946. p. 40.

5Ibid. p. 43.

6Lilly, Robert. Taken by Force: Rape and American GIs in Europe during WWII. p. 11.

7Yoshimi, Yoshiaki. Comfort Women. Columbia University Press, 2002. p. 49.

8Talmadge, Eric. “GIs Frequented Japan's ‘Comfort Women‘”, Washington Post, April 25, 2007. Takamae Ejii. Inside GHQ. The Allied Occupation of Japan and Its Legacy, London: Continuum, 2002, p. 68-69. By the end of 1945, 90 percent of the RAA comfort women had reportedly contracted venereal disease.

9Sabin, Burritt. “They Came, They Saw, They Democratized.” Japan Times 28 April 2002. Also Manchester, William. American Caesar: Douglas MacArthur 1880-1965. Boston: Little, Brown, 1978. pp. 468-469.

10Tanaka, Yuki. Japan's Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution during World War II and the US Occupation. Routledge, 2001. p.123

11Tanaka, Yuki. Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in WWII. Boulder, Colorado: Westerview Press, p. 103. There are 47 prefectures in Japan.

12Takamae Ejii. Inside GHQ, p. 67.

13Roehner, Bertrand M. Relations Between Allied Forces and the Population of Japan 15 August 1945-31 December 1960. Paris: University of Paris, 2007. Revised 2 September 2008. p. 54.

14Braw, Monica. The Atomic Bomb Suppressed, American Censorship in Japan 1945-1949. Lund Studies in International History 23 1986. p. 47. See also Takamae Ejii. Inside GHQ, p. 67.

15Roehner, p. 88.

16Tanaka, Yuki, Japan's Comfort Women, p. 161.

17Tanaka, Yuki, Japan's Comfort Women, p. 158.

18Tanaka, Yuki. Japan's Comfort Women, p. 162.

19Dower, John. Embracing Defeat, p. 579, fn 16.

20Tanaka, Yuki. pp. 163-164.

21Eichelberger, Lt. General. Letter to Commanding Officer, Eighth Army Stockade. 20 Sep 1946. General Correspondence Files ca. 1947; Adjutant General Section, IX Corps; Far East Command, Department of Defense; Record Group 338; National Archives at College Park, MD. Also see Roehner. p. 108. See also MacArthur, Douglas. Letter to All Unit Commanders. 22 June 1946. Entry A-1 135; File 250.1; Occupation Files 1945-1950; General Correspondence; Department of Defense. Far East Command. Eighth Army. Provost Marshal Section. Record Group 338; National Archives at College Park, College Park, MD. It begins “Since publishing my letter to you of 10 June regarding the behavior of our troops, I have received an increasing number of reports of crimes committed by Americans.” See also Letter to Commanding General, Eighth Army. 8 Nov 1946. Entry A-1 135; File 250.1; Occupation Files 1945-1950; General Correspondence; Department of Defense. Far East Command. Eighth Army. Provost Marshal Section; Record Group 338; National Archives at College Park, College Park, MD. MacArthur complains in the letter that less than 50% of the reported rapes, assaults and robberies were investigated and only one-third of the burglaries. This is after receiving another letter from the Commanding General reporting misconduct of occupation troops against Japanese Nationals for the month of September, 1946.

22Roehner. p. 72. See also p. 236 where Roehner writes: “The report has probably been removed in the period of strict censorship and has not been replaced afterward.”

23Hussey Papers, National Diet Library. Tokyo, Japan. Reel 9. 1946. I am indebted to Roehner for this information.

24Roehner. p. 176.

25United States. Office of the JAG. Holdings, Opinions, and Reviews: v.1-81 + 2 index volumes. GPO, 1924 – 1949 and 1944 – 1949. See also Holdings, opinions, and reviews. Branch Office of the JAG, SW Pacific Area. Washington: Office of JAG, 1946.

26“Return of General Prisoners” A1-149; 8th Army Stockade 1946; General Correspondence, 1946-1951; Provost Marshal Section, Far East Command, Department of Defense, Record Group 554; National Archives at College Park, College Park, MD. The 8th Army Historical Report from JAG shows 5 rapes tried in 1946. Monthly Occupation Historical Reports; File 108-DE (4)-.0.2; Central Records Depot; March 1946-June 1946. Record Group 407; National Archives at College Park, College Park, MD.

27United States. Office of the JAG. JAG's Corps Board of Review and Judicial Council Holdings, Opinions, and Reviews. Washington, D.C. : Office of the Judge Advocate General, 1949-1951.

28Roehner to author, e-mail April 3, 2009. See also his Relations Between Allied Forces and the Occupation of Japan, pp. 10-258.

29Roehner. p. 167.

30Takamae, Eiji, Inside GHQ. p. 67.

31M., Vincent, Jack W., Leroy S., and John J. Telephone interviews. 13 Apr 2007. Also M., William. “Re: Names. Email to author. 21 July 2007. See also McMillen, Joanne. ”Interview with Billy Fyffe.“ Eastern Oklahoma History Collection, Midwest City Rotary Club. 24 June 2004.

32Zobel, James. “Re: May.” Email to author. 21 June 2007.

33Corey, A.G. Telephone Interview. 10 July 2005.

34Zobel, James. Telephone interview. 31 Mar 2006.

35Racial Incident; File 291.2; Cross Reference Index to the Series Central Decimal Correspondence Files, 1940-1945,' 1940-1945 and Central Decimal Correspondence Files, 1940 – 1945; War Department. The Adjutant General's Office. Record Group 407; National Archives at College Park, College Park, MD.

36Lilly, J. Robert and Thomson, J. Michael. “Executing U.S. Soldiers in England, WWII: The Power of Command Influence and Sexual Racism” Northern Kentucky University, Salmon P. Chase College of Law. 1995. p. 16. See also Kaplan, Alice. The Interpreter. New York: Free Press/Simon and Schuster, 2005. pp. 168-170.

37Heilhecker, Larry. “Re: Clark Cemetery.” Email to author. 24 May 2007. Also List of Decedents PHILCOM Determined to be in “Dishonorable” Status, whose Cases are Being Processed and on when Disinterment Directives will be Issued at a Later Date; File 314.6; Correspondence Misc. File 1939-1954; Office of the Quartermaster General; Record Group 92; National Archives at College Park, College Park, MD.

38“Graves Registration WWII.” Japan and Philippine Plots. USAF Mausoleum Yokohama No. 2; Office of the Quartermaster General; Record Group 92; National Archives at College Park, College Park, MD.

39Buehner, Andrew J. “Chaplain Oscar W. Schoech Missionary to War Criminals.” Concordia Historical Institute Quarterly. Vol 57, No.1 (1984). Also Mahar, William. “Re: Search.” Email to author. 24 July 2007.

40Author's inquiries October 2004, December 2005.

41Roehner, p. 235. A full discussion of missing documents can be found in my memoir, Black Glasses Like Clark Kent.

42Roehner, “Re: Congratulations.” Email to author. 9 Aug 2007.

43National Personnel Records Center, St. Louis. “The 1973 Fire at the National Personnel Records Center”. Accessed 2008-11-11.

44Kaplan, Alice. The Interpreter. New York: Free Press/Simon and Schuster, 2005. 156.

451% are Mexican/American. Lilly, J. Robert. “Death Penalty Cases in WWII Military Courts: Lessons Learned from North Africa and Italy. Northern Kentucky University. Salmon P. Chase College of Law. 1995. p. 16, and Kaplan 2004.” p. 16.

46Lilly, Robert. p. 24.

47MacGregor, Jr., Morris J. “Segregation's Consequences.” Defense Studies Series: Integration of the Armed Forces 1940 – 1965. 1979. Chapter 5. 2 May 2001. 15 Oct 2007. Accessed 2008-11-11.

48Wallis, David. “Questions for John W. Dower: Occupation Preoccupation.” The New York Times. 30 Mar 2003. 9. See also Roehner, p. 25.

49Even inquiries about this lack to the Statistical Abstract of the United States were met with silence. Author's email 3-29-09.

50Roehner, p. 231.

51Roehner, p. 25.

52Roehner, p. 34.