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Independence as Restoration: Chinese and Mongolian Declarations of Independence and the 1911 Revolutions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 May 2025

Uradyn E. Bulag
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The Mongolian declaration of independence on 29 December 1911 was a monumental event in the modern history not only of Inner Asia, but also of East Asia; it not only contributed to the fall of the Qing Empire, but more importantly it led to the formation of two separate national states on the debris of the Empire: China and Mongolia. In 2011 both China and Mongolia commemorated the centennial, but the moods were more contemplative than celebratory, for neither thought that their nation has been consummated: China lost Outer Mongolia and (Outer) Mongolia lost Inner Mongolia.

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Research Article
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Asia-Pacific Journal , Volume 10 , Issue 52 , December 2012 , e4
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This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-No Derivatives licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is unaltered and is properly cited. The written permission of Cambridge University Press must be obtained for commercial re-use or in order to create a derivative work.
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Copyright © The Authors 2012

References

Notes

* This is a revised and expanded version of a paper originally delivered at “Mongolian Independence and the Mongols,” an international symposium held on 9-11 December 2011, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. The proceedings of the symposium have been published under the same title by the Institute of History, Mongolian Academy of Sciences. I thank the editor S. Chuluun for permission to reproduce the paper here in advance. As usual, I am profoundly grateful to Mark Selden for his encouragement and his generous comments on an earlier version of the paper.

1 Some representative publications on the anniversary are: Gao Quanxi 2011. Lixian Shike: Lun ‘Qingdi xunwei zhaoshu’ (The Constitutional Moment: On ‘The Qing Imperial Edict of Abdication’). Guilin: Guangxi Shifan Daxue Chubanshe. Zhang Yongle 2011. Jiubang Xinzao: 1911 - 1917 (Remaking the Old Empire: 1911 - 1917). Beijing: Beijing Daxue Chubanshe. The September 2011 issue of Huanqiu Falū Pinglun (Global Law Review) is a special issue devoted to the theme of ‘The Jurisprudential Significance of the Imperial Edict of Abdication Issued by the Qing Emperor’.

2 Gao 2011, pp. 83-104.

3 In Rev. G.H. Bondfield (ed.) 1912. The China Mission Year Book: Being “The Christian Movement in China” (Third Year of Issue). Shanghai: Christian Literature Society for China, Appendixes, p.17.

4 This was a status emphasized by the Republic of China. The first use of the term appeared in Chen Congzu 1922. Wai Menggu Jinshi Shi (Recent History of Outer Mongolia), Shanghai: Shangwu Yinshuguan, p. 17. ‘Mongols are as cowardly as mice, fearing the Russians very much. They would rather offend their parent state [mubang, lit. mother state] than dare to break their agreement with Russia’.

5 James Crawford 2006. The Creation of States in International Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 26-28.

6 D. Mönkh-Ochir 2007. ‘Bogd Haant Mongol Ulsyn Olon Ulsyn Status, Töriin Baiguulal’ (The International Status and the State Institutions of the Bogd Khaan Mongolia). In B. Punsaldulam & L. Altanzayaa (eds.) Mongolyn Ündesnii Huv'sgal - 95. Ulaanbaatar: Tsomorligtōv, pp. 74-94.

7 Jacques Derrida 1986. ‘Declarations of Independence’. New Political Science 15: 7-15.

8 Link (accessed 31 October 2012)

9 An interesting parallel may be drawn here with unrecognized independencies in the world today, such as Northern Cyprus, South Ossetia, Abkhazia, or Somaliland.

10 The vagueness of international law on this issue can clearly be seen in the quintessential ‘tough case’ of Kosovo, which does not enjoy de jure independence despite international recognition of its de facto independence. Christopher Borgen 2008. ‘Kosovo's Declaration of Independence: Selfdetermination, Secession and Recognition’. American Society of International Law vol.12, issue 2. Link (accessed 2 November 2012)

11 Until 1945, one may suggest that the Soviet Union recognized the ‘suzerainty’ of the Republic of China over the Mongolian People's Republic, thereby tacitly recognizing China's ‘parent-state’ status over Mongolia. Interestingly, the British government continued to use the concept to characterize Tibet's relationship with China until 2008 when Foreign Minister David Miliband called the word an ‘anachronism’ and recognized China's ‘sovereignty’ over Tibet. Richard Spencer (2008-11-05). ‘UK recognizes China's direct rule over Tibet’. The Daily Telegraph. Link (accessed 2 November 2012)

12 Cf. Duara's suggestion that the Republic of China was the world's first modern multinational state, anticipating the model established by the Soviet Union. Prasenjit Duara 2011. ‘The Multi-National State in Modern World History: The Chinese Experiment’. Frontiers of History in China 6 (2): 285-295.

13 David Armitage 2007. Declaration of Independence: A Global History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

14 Pan Kuang-che 2007. ‘Meiguo “Duli Xuanyan” zai Wanqing Zhongguo’ (The American Declaration of Independence in Late Qing China). Jindaishi Yanjiusuo Jikan. No. 57 (9): 1-55.

15 Zhang Yongle 2011. ‘“Da Tuoxie”: Qing Wangchao yu Zhonghua Minguo de Zhuquan Lianxuxing’ (The Great Compromise: The Continuity of Sovereignty from the Qing Dynasty to the Republic of China). Renwen yu Shehui. 04 October.

16 Sun Zhongshan 1912. Zhonghua Minguo Linshi Da Zongtong Xuanyan Shu (The Declaration of the Provisional President of the Republic of China) My translation.

17 Zhang Yongle 2011. ‘“Da Tuoxie”: Qing Wangchao yu Zhonghua Minguo de Zhuquan Lianxuxing’ (The Great Compromise: The Continuity of Sovereignty from the Qing Dynasty to the Republic of China). Renwen yu Shehui. 04 October. Link; Wang Hui 2011. ‘Geming, Tuoxie, yu Lianxuxing de Chuangzhi (Revolution, Compromise, and the Invention of Continuity) Link

18 Gao Quanxi 2011. Lixian Shike: Lun ‘Qingdi xunwei zhaoshu’ (The Constitutional Moment: On ‘The Qing Imperial Edict of Abdication’) Guilin: Guangxi Shifan Daxue Chubanshe.

19 For recent studies of the 1911 Mongolian independence movements, see Urgungge Onon and Derrick Pritchatt 1989. Asia's First Modern Revolution: Mongolia Proclaims Its Independence in 1911. Leiden: E.J. Brill. Chang Chi-hsiung 1995. Wai Meng Zhuquan Guishu Jiaoshe: 1911-1916 (Disputes and Negotiations over Outer Mongolia's Sovereignty, 1911 - 1916). Taipei: Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica. Ürgedei Tayibung 2006. Üher Jil-un Üimegen-u Gerel ba Següder: Horidugar Jagun-u ehin-u Öbör Monggol-un Ulus Tōrō-yin Hubisulta-yin Teühe (The Light and Shadow of the Disturbance in the Year of the Ox: The History of Political Change in Inner Mongolia at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century). Hōhehota: Öbör Monggol-un Surgan Hümüjil- un Heblel-un Horiy-a. Tachibana Makato 2011, Mongolyn Martagdsan Tüüh: Bogd Haant Zasgiin Gazar (1911-1921) (The Forgotten History of Mongolia: The Bogd Khaan Government (1911-1921). Ulaanbaatar: MN Tehnologi.

20 ‘1911 ony zun tsag Halhyn Javzandamba Hutagt ba Dörvön haadaas büh Mongol Ündesten n’ Manj Hyatdyn darlal dor tesesh ügúi bolson uchryg gargaj, tusgaar uls baiguulahad tuslamjyg güij Oros ulsyn hand örgösön bichig’. Lhamsürengiin Dendev (ed.)

2002. XX zuuny Mongolyn tüühiin eh survalj. Ulaanbaatar: Mongol Ulsyn Shinjleh Uhaany Akademi, Olon Uls Sudlalyn Hüreelen, pp. 112 - 117 (hereafter Petition 1911)

21 Petition 1911, p. 113.

22 Cf. Charles Taylor 1992. ‘The Politics of Recognition’, in Amy Gutmann (ed.) Multiculturalism and ‘The Politics of Recognition‘. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

23 Petition 1911, p. 112.

24 See Onon and Pritchatt 1989, pp 143-144.

25 Onon and Pritchatt 1989: 126-129. My modification of Onon and Pritchatt's translation. There were some errors in their translation, missing the difference between UlUS nation] and törü (state), for instance.

26 ‘1911 ony övöl tsag Gadaad Mongolyn büh nairalyn hurlaas Manjiin zasgiin gazraas Mongolchuud tusgaar uls bolson uchiryg medegdsen tsahilgaan medee’. Lhamsürengiin Dendev (ed.) 2003. XX zuuny Mongolyn tüühiin eh survalj. Ulaanbaatar: Mongol Ulsyn Shinjleh Uhaany Akademi, Olon Uls Sudlalyn Hüreelen, p. 128. My translation. See Onon and Pritchatt's translation in Onon and Pritchatt 1989, p. 59.

27 1912 ond Mongol Ulsyg baiguulsan uchryg gadaad ulsuudad zarlasan bichig’. Lhamsürengiin Dendev (ed.) 2003. XX zuuny Mongolyn tüühiin eh survalj. Ulaanbaatar: Mongol Ulsyn Shinjleh Uhaany Akademi, Olon Uls Sudlalyn Hüreelen, p. 131

28 ‘1911 ony övöl tsag Gadaad Mongolyn büh nairalyn hurlaas Manjiin zasgiin gazraas Mongolchuud tusgaar uls bolson uchiryg medegdsen tsahilgaan medee’. Lhamsürengiin Dendev (ed.) 2003. XX zuuny Mongolyn tüühiin eh survalj. Ulaanbaatar: Mongol Ulsyn Shinjleh Uhaany Akademi, Olon Uls Sudlalyn Hüreelen, p. 129.

29 A Russo-Mongolian Treaty of Friendship was signed on 21 October 1912.

30 ‘1911 ony zun tsag Halhyn Javzandamba Hutagt ba Dörvön haadaas büh Mongol Ündesten n’ Manj Hyatdyn darlal dor tesesh ügüi bolson uchryg gargaj, tusgaar uls baiguulahad tuslamjyg güij Oros ulsyn hand örgösön bichig’. Lhamsürengiin Dendev (ed.) 2003. XX zuuny Mongolyn tüühiin eh survalj. Ulaanbaatar: Mongol Ulsyn Shinjleh Uhaany Akademi, Olon Uls Sudlalyn Hüreelen, p. 113.

31 Nakami Tatsuo 1984. ‘A Protest against the Concept of the “Middle Kingdom”: The Mongols and the 1911 Revolution’. In E. Shinkichi and H. Z. Schiffrin (eds.). The 1911 Revolution in China: Interpretive Essays. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, pp. 129-149.

32 Chang Chi-hsiung 1995. Wai Meng Zhuquan Guishu Jiaoshe: 1911-1916 (Disputes and Negotiations over Outer Mongolia's Sovereignty, 1911 - 1916). Taipei: Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica, p. 41.

33 Urgunge Onon and Derrick Pritchatt 1989. Asia's First Modern Revolution: Mongolia Proclaims Its Independence in 1911. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

34 Yuan Shikai 1912. ‘Zhi Kulun Huofo’ (To the Living Buddha of Khuree). In Liu Xuwei (ed.) Minguo Yilai Menggu Shiliao Huibian. Taipei: Jinlan Wenhua Chubanshe, p. 167.

35 Ibid.

36 Yuan Shikai 1912. ‘Zhi Kulun Huofo’ (To the Living Buddha of Khuree). In Liu Xuwei (ed.) Minguo Yilai Menggu Shiliao Huibian. Taipei: Jinlan Wenhua Chubanshe, p. 167.

37 ‘Mongol ulsyn Dotood yamny saidaas Hyatad ulsyn Dotood hergiin yamny bügdiin tergüün dor tus Mongolchuud tusgaar uls bolson uchiryg medegden yavuulsan tsahilgaan medeenii huulbar’. Lhamsürengiin Dendev (ed.) 2003. XX zuuny Mongolyn tüühiin eh survalj. Ulaanbaatar: Mongol Ulsyn Shinjleh Uhaany Akademi, Olon Uls Sudlalyn Hüreelen, p. 136.

38 Robert A. Rupen 1964. Mongols of the Twentieth Century. Part I. Bloomington: Indiana University, p. 62.

39 Lhamsürengiin Dendev (ed.) 2003. XX zuuny Mongolyn tüühiin eh survalj. Ulaanbaatar: Mongol Ulsyn Shinjleh Uhaany Akademi, Olon Uls Sudlalyn Hüreelen, p. 145.

40 Robert A. Rupen 1964. Mongols of the Twentieth Century. Part I. Bloomington: Indiana University. p. 62

41 Ibid. p. 63.

42 Ibid. pp. 63-64.

43 Uradyn E. Bulag 2010. Collaborative Nationalism: The Politics of Friendship on China's Mongolian Frontier. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield.